Fixed and Fluid: The Two Faces of Gender Roles—A Combined Study of Activity Patterns and Burial Practices in the European Neolithic

OBJECTIVES: This study investigates gender roles in the European Neolithic by analyzing activity-related skeletal changes (ARSCs) and burial practices at two Polgár microregion sites in Hungary: Polgár-Ferenci-hát (5300-5070 cal. bce) and Polgár-Csőszhalom (4800-4650 cal. bce). MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 125 well-preserved adult skeletons were included in the study. Types of ARSCs examined include spondylolysis (overall workload), humeral enthesopathies (unilateral upper-limb overuse), and metatarsal facets (habitual postures). Burial positions and grave goods were analyzed to assess sex-based differences in burial practices. RESULTS: Polgár-Ferenci-hát exhibited no clear differences in burial treatment between the sexes, while Polgár-Csőszhalom displayed marked sex-related distinctions in burial practices. Individuals at Polgár-Csőszhalom bore greater physical workloads than those at Polgár-Ferenci-hát, though no consistent sex-based differences in lesions emerged. Males at both sites demonstrated recurrent right upper limb overuse, aligning with broader prehistoric European trends. At Polgár-Csőszhalom, nine males and one female buried with male-associated items also exhibited metatarsal facets, linking sex-associated activity, posture, and social identity. DISCUSSION: The findings suggest that society at Csőszhalom was structured around gendered roles, yet allowed for individual variation. While the limited number of individuals and the inherent uncertainty in interpreting activity markers call for caution, this study enhances our understanding of prehistoric social organization by revealing both recurring sex-related patterns of behavior and local flexibility in the expression of gender roles.