Roles for Electrochemical Proton Gradients in Mitochondrial Energy Production and Neurosensory Processes in Health and Disease

This study reviews the roles of proton electrochemical gradients in ubiquitous mitochondrial energy production systems in cellular activation and functions in neurosensory signaling. Proton electrochemical gradients crucially shaped the evolution of life. The emergence of the proton-motive force in mitochondria was fundamental in energy production and central to the function of eukaryotic cells. Dysfunctional mitochondria, however, result in impaired formation of proton gradients and a wide spectrum of diseases. This is particularly prominent in tissues with high energetic demands, such as muscle and nervous tissues. Oxidant stress generated by dysfunctional proton conductance in the brain results in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, muscular sclerosis, amyotrophic sclerosis, and Huntington's disease. In these disorders, oxidative stress, protein misfolding, and neuroinflammation lead to dysfunctional neuronal activity, neuronal damage, and death. Advancements in nanozyme-engineered synthetic enzymes offer a promising innovative approach to the treatment of these disorders. Nanozymes target proton conductance and the oxidant species they generate, scavenging oxygen free radicals and restoring redox balance, and offer neuronal protection and functional recovery of brain tissues. Neural injury and associated neurological diseases affect almost 1 billion people globally, so there is a clear need to develop effective methods that stimulate neural repair and regeneration. Glycosaminoglycans with proton capture and transport properties regulate intercellular signaling processes, synaptic functions, and cellular communication. Electroconductive hydrogels are showing impressive results in neural repair and regeneration. Glycosaminoglycans, particularly keratan sulfate, show useful electroconductive proton capture and transport properties, suggesting they may be worth evaluation in such procedures.