Towards Sustainable Policy‐Making in NATO: The Environmental and Economic Implications of CO 2 Emissions and Military Spending

Sustainable Development 2026

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Authors: Erkam Emin Ayvaz, Melike Atay Polat, Alper Aslan, Buket Savranlar, Usama Al‐mulali, Alina Raboshuk
DOI: 10.1002/sd.70594
Cited by: 2
References: 95

Abstract

ABSTRACT This study analyses the interrelationships among CO 2 emissions, ecological footprint, economic growth, military expenditures, and industrial development in NATO countries between 1990 and 2022. A GMM‐based panel vector autoregression (PVAR) approach is employed to capture long‐term dynamics. The results reveal that CO 2 emissions, economic growth, and military spending significantly increase the ecological footprint. Bidirectional causality is observed between CO 2 emissions and economic development, as well as between economic development and military expenditures, while other variables display unidirectional relationships. These findings emphasize the critical need for renewable energy adoption, green technology investments, and sustainable military and economic policies in NATO countries.

Fields of Study & Subjects

Energy Environment Economic Growth Environmental Impact and Sustainability Defense Military and Policy Studies

Publication details

Journal / source
Sustainable Development
Publisher
Wiley
Volume
34
Issue
4
Pages
5222–5240
Publication date
2 January 2026
Language
EN