Drinking Water and Environmental Justice: Divergent Contamination in a Diverse Country

Abstract Racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities in U.S. drinking water quality have become key concerns for researchers and policymakers. Environmental justice studies of Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) compliance show that violations are more frequent in areas with higher Black and Hispanic populations and lower incomes. However, these analyses typically treat all violations the same, overlooking how the social correlates of contamination can differ. This chapter investigates how the correlation between race, ethnicity, income, and SDWA violations vary depending on the contaminant. For instance, the correlates of Nitrate contamination from agriculture are different from those related to selenium contamination from petroleum refineries. Analyzing specific contaminants like coliform, Nitrate, Benzene, and perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) reveals that the social and economic factors associated with drinking water risks vary significantly. These findings carry two major implications: first, regulators should consider distributional concerns and the social contexts of water contamination when creating new rules; second, because the most serious contamination risks and potential environmental injustices vary by location, state agencies need flexibility to prioritize the contaminants and treatment technologies that advance justice in their jurisdictions.