Who Is the Enemy? Top-Down Polarization in Party Manifestos and Parliamentary Discourse (2012–2023)

This chapter (A previous version of this article on party manifestos will appear in the Hellenic Review of Political Science, no. 166 (January 2026), under the title: “Political Polarization in Greece: An Analysis of Thematic Differences and Rhetorical Strategies in Party Programs (2012–2019),” by Costis Pierides and Fani Kountouri), examines top-down political polarization in Greece during the turbulent period 2012–2023 by analysing both party manifestos and parliamentary policy statements. Drawing on mixed methods-quantitative data from the Comparative Manifesto Project and qualitative discourse analysis—it develops a typology of polarizing rhetoric and identifies patterns of issue, ideological, and affective polarization. It suggests that polarization is not merely a reflection of social cleavages, but a strategic tool shaped by ideological belongings (party families) and party system roles. Party manifestos emphasize issue-based and ideological divisions, while parliamentary speeches display heightened personal attacks and moral delegitimization. Far-right and radical-left parties consistently adopt more intense forms of polarization, while governing parties use moderated rhetoric. The study highlights the evolution of polarization from issue-based contestation to identity-based conflict and maps rhetorical thresholds when political discourse shifts from disagreement to confrontation, especially during institutional crises.