Environmental performance of PET and biopolymers: a comparative LCA of end-of-life scenarios

Abstract Plastic waste presents critical challenges for manufacturing systems, particularly in balancing material performance, environmental sustainability, and end-of-life (EoL) management. While the analysis focuses on a representative product (a plastic bottle), the findings are generalizable to a broader range of polymer-based applications. Advanced modelling tools were employed using SimaPro v9.6.0.1 with ReCiPe 2016 (midpoint and endpoint) and cumulative energy demand (CED) methods. Each material was assessed under mechanical recycling and incineration pathways, in both properly managed and mismanaged systems. Results indicate that polylactide (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) consistently outperform polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in impact categories such as eutrophication and freshwater ecotoxicity, particularly under well-managed conditions. Conversely, environmental burdens increase substantially under mismanagement, highlighting the importance of systemic EoL strategies. PET, although prevalent in industrial applications, exhibited the highest impacts under incineration, notably in human health damage and resource depletion. Furthermore, its persistent, non-biodegradable nature contributes to microplastic pollution. This is a factor not yet fully integrated into LCA frameworks. The study reinforces the value of integrating biopolymers with circular EoL strategies and effective waste management systems to support more sustainable manufacturing practices across polymeric product sectors.