Evolution of plant exploitation strategies of Early and Late Natufian hunter-gatherers at Shubayqa 1 (14,600–11,500 cal bp), Black Desert of Jordan

Abstract The Late Epipalaeolithic marks a pivotal period in the development of economic practices that ultimately culminated in plant-food production. Within this context, Natufian hunter-gatherers are often regarded as among the earliest sedentary communities, traditionally portrayed as reliant on wild cereals and as possible early cultivators. Shubayqa 1, a Natufian site in semi-arid northeastern Jordan spanning the Early and Late Natufian phases (14,600–11,500 cal bp ), has yielded an exceptionally large and well-preserved archaeobotanical assemblage. In this study, we conduct taxonomic and taphonomic analyses, together with ethnobotanical classification and an assessment of seasonal plant availability, to re-evaluate Natufian plant use and to assess how plant exploitation strategies changed over time. The analysis of non-woody plant macroremains indicates a subsistence strategy strongly focused on wetland species, with Bolboschoenus (club-rush) tubers predominant during the Early Natufian (14,600–14,100 cal bp ), followed by a shift in plant exploitation during the Late Natufian. The results further demonstrate that wild grasses, including Hordeum spontaneum and Triticum boeoticum/urartu , were likely locally available around the site, providing the first direct evidence for these taxa in the region. Pre-charring fragmentation patterns observed in Hordeum (barley), Triticum (wheat), and Stipa (feathergrass) suggest that grasses were processed and consumed as part of a broader plant-based subsistence strategy. The archaeobotanical evidence indicates possible year-round occupation during both the Early and Late Natufian periods, consistent with interpretations based on faunal remains. These results suggest that wetland plant resources played a key role in sustaining repeated and potentially prolonged occupations by providing a reliable food source in an otherwise semi-arid, resource-limited environment.