Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): persistence, toxicity, and emerging solutions

PFAS are found in soil, water bodies, food products, and the air. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic organofluorine chemicals that have carbon-fluorine (C-F) bonds that make CF₃ or CF₂ moieties in their molecular structures. ause the C–F bond is so strong and stable that it makes them very hard to break down. Because PFAS is found in in water, soil, and biota, especially in fish and other aquatic species. Human exposure to PFAS has been associated with adverse health effects, including immune system suppression and increased susceptibility to infections. This review examines PFAS to elucidate their environmental sources, physicochemical characteristics, analytical detection methods, and control strategies. Current detection techniques for PFAS in water, soil, and biological matrices are critically evaluated, with emphasis on advanced analytical approaches. In addition, existing remediation technologies such as electrocoagulation, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), high-pressure membrane separation, and adsorption are reviewed. Emerging remediation strategies, including metal–organic framework (MOF)-based adsorbents, mechanochemical degradation, and electron-beam treatment, are highlighted for their potential to overcome the limitations of conventional methods. Future methods for successful PFAS mitigation are also emphasized by discussing recent regulatory changes toward group-based PFAS management and sustainability-oriented policy frameworks.