Digital Game-Based Learning in Primary Education: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial on Knowledge, Skills, and Motivation

Abstract Digital technologies are increasingly integrated into primary education, yet evidence remains limited regarding how digital game-based learning (DGBL) affects the relationships among musical knowledge acquisition, aural skills development, and classroom motivation. To address this limitation, this study examined the effects of DGBL in a music education context using a Cluster‑Randomized Controlled Trial. Participants were 277 third-grade students who took part in an eight-week intervention. Outcomes were estimated using Rasch‑scaled measures, and motivation measures were validated through Cronbach’s α and confirmatory factor analysis. Linear mixed models showed significant gains in musical knowledge and all six motivational factors in the intervention group, whereas a marginally significant effect was observed for aural skills, suggesting that the intervention dosage may have been insufficient. Aural skills significantly moderated the effect of DGBL on musical knowledge. We observed a possible “autonomy paradox”: aural skill gains were negatively related to empowerment, raising the possibility that scaffolded autonomy may be especially important in teacher-centered contexts such as China. The results underscore the importance of designing DGBL experiences that accommodate differential learning outcomes and suggest that DGBL implementation must be carefully adapted to local pedagogical contexts.