Strategic master plan for coastal city risk mitigation: a case study of Kuala Nerus and Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia

Coastal regions worldwide face heightened vulnerability to natural hazards such as erosion, flooding, sea level rise, deforestation, and coastal change. This study examines Peninsular Malaysiass Eastern Coast, focusing on Kuala Terengganu and Kuala Nerus (KTKN), a coastal zone significantly impacted by these hazards. The primary aim is to develop a comprehensive multi-hazard assessment and land-use suitability framework to inform the Coastal City Spatial Master Plan (CCSMP). The CCSMP integrates advanced analytical approaches including Deep Learning (DL) models, coastal hazard models, the Delphi-Analytical Hierarchy Process (D-AHP), and Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques to generate Multi-Hazard Numerical Spatial Data (MHNSD). The analysis reveals that 46.3% of KTKN’s central and southern zones fall within low-hazard categories (hazard index < 0.35), making them highly suitable for urban expansion, while 28.7% of the northern coastal belt is classified as high-risk (hazard index > 0.65) due to severe erosion and projected sea level rise. Land-use suitability mapping indicates that over 60 km 2 is optimal for sustainable development, balancing hazard exposure and environmental constraints. These findings highlight priority areas for climate change adaptation, demonstrate the integration of hazard assessment into spatial planning, and provide a robust, data-driven foundation for policymakers, urban planners, and coastal managers to design resilient, adaptive, and sustainable coastal urban environments.