Recent advances in microbial production of odd-chain fatty acids

The production of odd-chain fatty acids (OCFAs) is gaining increasing importance due to their diverse applications in food, chemical, and biofuel industries. These fatty acids, which are relatively rare in nature, can be produced from renewable carbon sources through microbial fermentation processes. This review covers the significance of OCFAs in the market and their occurrence, followed by a detailed exploration of their production in mixed and single strain cultures. Specifically, the anaerobic fermentation (AF) conditions and feedstocks used to produce short OCFAs (SOCFAs), such as propionic, valeric, and heptanoic acids are discussed. Additionally, the production of long OCFAs (LOCFAs) by single strains is focusing on yeast, bacteria, and microalgae. Novel approaches for LOCFAs generation from waste carbon sources are also reviewed. This work delves both into the manipulation of microbial communities covering bioaugmentation and process optimization for bioenrichment in open mixed cultures and genetic manipulation in single-strain systems. Finally, the potential for scalable and sustainable production of OCFAs through microbial processes is discussed, as well as the technological advances needed to optimize these pathways.