Age, income, education and religiosity in Europe: evidence from the last two decades

Abstract This study explores how individual and regional factors influence religiosity across Europe, focusing on education, income, age, and health as institutional drivers. Testing three sociological hypotheses, we find that education has a U-shaped effect on religious engagement, while age, health, and relative income significantly predict religiosity. Regional economic and educational contexts show no consistent influence. Our findings contribute to institutional economics by illuminating how education and income shape cultural norms and collective belief systems, underscoring the enduring interplay between personal conditions and institutional structures in shaping religious behavior.