Gender differences in technical performance of the volleyball spike jump among Czech top national league players

Abstract This study examined gender differences in the technical performance of the volleyball spike jump (SpJ) and its association with attack zones. A total of 511 attacking actions (244 male players, 267 female players) were analyzed from matches in the Czech highest volleyball leagues during the 2024/2025 season. Chi-square tests of independence revealed significant gender differences in take-off type ( p = 0.001), forward shoulder flexion during arm swing (AS; p < 0.001), backward shoulder extension during AS ( p = 0.004), and elbow extension during AS ( p < 0.001). In this regard, female players more frequently utilized the high-stop take-off ( p = 0.002), whereas male players more commonly employed the parallel take-off ( p = 0.002). Female players were also significantly associated with high shoulder flexion during the forward AS, combined with low and middle elbow extension angles during a backward AS ( p < 0.001). By contrast, male players were significantly associated with low shoulder flexion during the forward AS and high elbow extension during a backward AS ( p < 0.001). In addition, a high prevalence of high shoulder extension during a backward AS was found in male players ( p = 0.001), while female players more often showed middle shoulder extension (p = 0.007). Analysis of the association between the technical performance and attack zones in male players revealed significantly higher frequency of high-stop, low-stop, and parallel take-offs from zones 6, 4, and 3, respectively ( p < 0.001). Additionally, single-leg landings in male players were associated with attacks from zone 4 ( p < 0.001). In female players, a higher prevalence of parallel take-offs was found from zone 3 ( p < 0.001). These findings highlight distinct gender-specific technical strategies in the SpJ.