Balancing risk and reward: Toward resilient human–primate coexistence in a rapidly changing environment in Sulawesi, Indonesia

This study explores human-moor macaque (Macaca maura) coexistence in Sulawesi, Indonesia, using resilience thinking to assess temporal patterns of coadaptation amidst stressors such as provisioning and road construction. Comparing data from 2016-2017 to 2023-2025, we examine changes in provisioning patterns, macaque roadside use, and people's perceptions of macaques to evaluate factors that may test the system's resilience. Our results show that although provisioning frequency has remained stable, hand-feeding is increasingly common and macaques have increased their use of roadside habitat. Additionally, people's perceptions have shifted from excitement and novelty to fear and normalization. Decreasing tolerance, coupled with increased risks associated with roadside behavior, highlights the system's potential to transition to a state incompatible with coexistence. Our results can be leveraged to promote resilient coexistence, e.g., interventions that enable safer roadside crossing for the macaques and community outreach programs that make use of people's empathy for the macaques' welfare.