Ten years of Brexit

Abstract The 2016 Brexit referendum marked the most divisive episode in postwar British politics, reshaping electoral alignments, the economy, immigration policy, and the UK’s relationship with Europe. Brexit intensified political polarisation by creating enduring “Leave” and “Remain” identities that increasingly transcended traditional party loyalties, contributing to fragmentation of the party system and heightened social distrust. Economically, evidence suggests Brexit has significantly reduced UK GDP, investment, productivity, trade, and foreign direct investment, while labour shortages have emerged across key sectors. Although Brexit was promoted as a means of controlling immigration, net migration ultimately rose to record levels after new global migration pressures and labour demands emerged, while irregular Channel crossings became a major political issue. At the same time, geopolitical instability and economic realities have encouraged a gradual rapprochement between the UK and the European Union, despite formal withdrawal. A decade after the referendum, Brexit is widely viewed by the British public as having failed to deliver many of its promised benefits, prompting renewed interest in closer UK-EU cooperation.