Advances in electrode materials for electrochemical biofilm sensing

Biofilms represent complex microbial communities that pose significant challenges across healthcare, environmental, and industrial sectors because of their resistance to antibiotics and persistence on surfaces. Electrochemical sensors have garnered attention among emerging detection techniques because of their rapid, label-free, and real-time biofilm monitoring capabilities. The performance of these sensors, however, critically hinges on the choice of electrode material, which governs sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and biocompatibility. This review comprehensively explores the evolution and application of electrode materials used in electrochemical biofilm detection, ranging from traditional noble metals such as gold and platinum to advanced carbon-based materials, polymers, nanostructured composites, and laser-induced graphene. Each material’s physicochemical properties, modification strategies, and suitability for specific biofilm types are evaluated in terms of detection efficiency and real-world applicability. Special emphasis is placed on nanomaterial-functionalized platforms and emerging low-cost, flexible electrodes for point-of-care diagnostics and environmental sensing. By correlating material selection with biofilm detection performance, this review highlights current challenges, such as electrode fouling and signal drift, and proposes future directions, including multifunctional sensors and wireless integration. Ultimately, this work underscores the pivotal role of material innovation in advancing electrochemical technologies for precise and robust biofilm monitoring.