Integrated environmental and economic trade-offs in rice cultivation in emerging economies using a life cycle approach

Rice cultivation, a staple for over 70% of India’s population and a major global export, significantly contributes to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, alongside exacerbating water stress and facing climate-induced yield declines. This research uniquely integrates Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) with Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) to comprehensively evaluate environmental and economic trade-offs in conventional rice production across four diverse Indian agro-climatic regions–Assam, Haryana, Maharashtra, and Kerala. This comparative analysis identifies critical hotspots: increased logistical burdens from transport, elevated ecotoxicity from synthetic zinc sulphate, and the high cost of “safer” imported inputs. We also highlight a notable trade-off between decarbonization via reduced mechanization and increased labour intensity, which, while boosting rural employment, impacted production costs. These findings underscore the urgent need for evidence-based policies to achieve Sustainable Development goals on Climate Action, Zero Hunger, Clean Water and Sanitation, Decent Work and Economic Growth, and Life on Land. Effective interventions must focus on decentralized access to sustainable inputs, balanced subsidy reforms, stringent chemical regulation, and regionally tailored strategies to ensure sustainable and equitable rice production.