Climate responsive courtyard design for urban sustainability in five Marla houses in Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Abstract Rapid urbanization and climate change have dramatically increased energy consumption in South Asian residential buildings. Traditional courtyard houses, once common in the region, provided passive cooling solutions that have largely been abandoned in favor of maximizing built-up floor area. This mixed-methods study examines the thermal performance and social acceptability of courtyard integration in 5 Marla (≈125 m 2 ) urban houses in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Building performance simulations compare a conventional house with a courtyard-integrated design featuring mud brick walls and wind catcher geometry. The courtyard design reduces total yearly energy use by about 20% (one-fifth) compared to a typical 5 Marla house, assuming normal family living patterns and equipment use. The addition of a courtyard will also help achieve context-specific comfort standards in indoor thermal conditions. This investigation was conducted on a single typology of housing in a digitally simulated environment; thus, these results must be considered in light of this limitation. Nevertheless, the findings suggest the potential usefulness of compact courtyards as a climate-resilient solution for Pakistan's densely populated urban settlements.