From printed architectures to functional batteries: printing technologies, post-processing, and sintering

Abstract 3D printing has rapidly evolved into a versatile fabrication strategy for advanced energy storage devices by enabling unprecedented control over geometry, porosity and material distribution. Compared with conventional slurry-based manufacturing, 3D printing offers distinct advantages for constructing thick electrodes, complex 3D architectures and integrated battery components, thereby opening new pathways toward simultaneously achieving high energy density and high-power performance. Nevertheless, the electrochemical functionality of 3D-printed structures is not solely determined by their macroscopic design. As-printed green bodies typically suffer from high porosity, weak interparticle bonding and substantial organic content, making post-processing an indispensable step for realizing practical energy storage performance. This review systematically summarizes recent progress in 3D printing technologies for energy storage applications, including direct ink writing, electrohydrodynamic printing, fused deposition modeling, stereolithography and binder jet printing. Particular emphasis is placed on the critical role of post-processing, especially sintering, in regulating microstructural evolution, phase stability, interfacial bonding and electron/ion transport pathways. The effects of key sintering parameters, such as temperature, dwell time and heating rate, densification behavior, and electrochemical performance are critically discussed. Furthermore, emerging strategies involving rapid sintering, high-throughput experimentation and machine-learning-assisted optimization are highlighted as promising approaches to accelerate process development and improve reproducibility. By elucidating the intrinsic coupling between 3D printing and sintering-based post-processing, this review provides practical guidelines for the rational design and scalable fabrication of high-performance 3D-printed energy storage devices.