Perceived naturalness and restorative responses in virtual urban environments: Evidence from two immersive VR experiments

As urban environments become denser and more psychologically demanding, understanding how urban green infrastructure supports well-being is increasingly important. This research used immersive virtual reality (VR) to examine how natural elements embedded within urban environments influence subjective, cognitive, visual, and physiological indicators of restoration. In Study 1 (N = 104), participants were exposed to one of four audiovisual 360° urban environments differing in vegetation, water presence, and environmental configuration. Environments perceived as more natural elicited higher perceived restorativeness and eye-movement patterns consistent with more effortless visual processing, although effects on affect, heart-rate variability (HRV), and sustained attention were limited. Study 2 (N = 83) compared an urban environment with and without digitally added vegetation, water features, and birdsong following a standardized stress induction. Although the enriched environment did not produce significant improvements in affective, cognitive, or physiological recovery (HRV, electrodermal activity), qualitative responses indicated that participants clearly perceived the manipulation, generating more nature-related and restoration-related associations than participants in the control condition. Across both studies, perceived naturalness was positively associated with perceived restorativeness, while the findings highlighted the importance of broader environmental characteristics, including spatial configuration, visibility of built infrastructure, and contextual coherence. Together, the results suggest that perceiving natural cues and experiencing restoration are related but distinct processes. More broadly, they highlight both the potential and the limitations of immersive VR for investigating the restorative potential of urban nature and informing evidence-based urban greening strategies.