Mycotoxin exposure: Risks to human health and detection approaches

Mycotoxins are a persistent food safety problem globally because they are widely distributed in major food crops and have varying toxic effects on the health of humans and animals. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of key fungi that produce mycotoxins, the sources of their contamination, and the health-related hazards associated with dietary exposure. It highlights emerging challenges associated with the co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins and shifts in contamination sources driven by climate change. These analytical techniques and technologies, such as chromatographic techniques, immunoassays, biosensors, and molecular diagnostics, are comparatively evaluated for sensitivity, applicability, and scalability in the food supply chain. The review also discusses new approaches to mitigating and controlling mycotoxins, including pre- and post-harvest strategies, biological control strategies, and the use of advanced technologies such as nanotechnology and cold atmospheric plasma. Notably, the combination of digital tools, artificial intelligence-based monitoring, and risk modeling using predictive analysis is presented as an emerging paradigm for proactive mycotoxin risk management. The One Health strategy is employed to emphasize the interconnected effects of mycotoxins on the health of humans, animals, and the environment, while also critically examining policy gaps and regulatory challenges. In general, this review develops a comprehensive framework of detecting innovation, climate-aware risk management, and adaptive governance solutions to enable better mycotoxin management and increase food safety resilience worldwide.