Future perspectives on multiscale and green manufacturing of carbon-based composites for next-generation aerospace systems: A review

Carbon-based materials, including carbon fibers, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon/carbon composites, and carbon aerogels, have become central to next-generation aerospace systems that demand lightweight structures, high mechanical and thermal performance, and reduced environmental impact. Alongside rapid performance-driven advancements, increasing sustainability requirements have highlighted persistent challenges related to manufacturing scalability, cross-scale data integration, recyclability, and process precision. This review examines recent literature published between 2019 and 2025 to identify emerging trends at the intersection of multiscale design and green manufacturing of carbon-based composites for aerospace applications. The reviewed studies collectively demonstrate that advances in multiscale modeling, digitalization, and sustainability assessment are reshaping composite development across the nano-, micro-, and macro-scales. The reported findings (across out-of-autoclave curing, additive manufacturing, microwave-assisted processing, and recycled-feedstock composite systems) consistently indicate substantial reductions in manufacturing energy demand and associated CO₂ emissions relative to conventional autoclave-based routes. Competitive mechanical performance is maintained across these approaches. Recent developments in multifunctional and hybrid carbon-composite architectures have yielded notable improvements in oxidation and ablation resistance, extending their applicability to high-temperature and extreme aerospace environments. Beyond individual technologies, the literature highlights the growing convergence of multiscale physics-based designs, intelligent digital tools, and life-cycle-oriented decision frameworks as a pathway toward more sustainable and certifiable aerospace manufacturing. The scenario-based assessments discussed in the reviewed studies further suggest that the coordinated adoption of these approaches could play a significant role in long-term emissions mitigation within the aerospace sector. Overall, this review provides an integrated perspective that connects cross-scale material design with green manufacturing strategies and digital ecosystems. This perspective offers a coherent framework to guide future research, industrial implementation, and policy-aligned progress toward low-carbon aerospace composite production.