Testing the reinforcing properties of sodium in hyper-palatable and ultra-processed foods using an experimental randomized parallel arm design

Research has indicated that the reinforcing properties of certain foods may drive excess energy intake and obesity risk. However, scientifically our understanding of what characteristics may modulate the reinforcing properties of such foods is limited. The study focused on foods with combinations of nutrients (sodium + fat or starchy carbohydrates) at moderate to high levels, termed hyper-palatable foods (HPF), which are hypothesized to be strong reinforcers. A randomized experiment using an online crowdsourced sample was conducted to examine whether sodium may modulate the reinforcing properties of HPF. A secondary aim examined whether ultra-processed food (UPF) status contributed to the reinforcing properties of food stimuli. Adults (N=339) recruited online via Prolific were randomized to 1 of 2 study arms and presented with: 1) HPF-UPF (HPF that were also ultra-processed) (n=5); or 2) HPF-only stimuli (n=5). Comparator stimuli (n=5) for both arms were matched food items without sodium. Participants completed visual analogue scale ratings of acute subjective effects and behavioral tasks assessing the reinforcing properties of HPF/HPF-UPF items vs matched items without sodium. There were significant differences between the HPF/HPF-UPF and matched items without sodium on all subjective effects (liking, wanting, etc; p-values