Farm typologies and precision agriculture technology co-adoption in German agriculture: A combined cluster and network approach

Existing research predominantly focuses on individual precision agriculture technologies (PAT) adoption decisions, offering limited insight into how technologies are combined, how adoption intensity varies across farms and which farm and farmer characteristics differentiate adoption patterns. Against this background, this study identifies farm types that reflect different levels of PAT integration based on the adoption intensity of 32 technologies and examines the observed structure of technology co-adoption. Based on a stratified random-sampling process, survey data from 342 German arable farms were collected via computer-assisted telephone interviews between December 2024 and January 2025. We combine cluster analysis and technology-level network analysis to jointly assess farm-level heterogeneity and patterns of technology co-adoption. The results reveal two farm types that differ primarily in overall PAT adoption intensity rather than domain-specific technology specialization, with systematic differences in farm and farmer characteristics between types. Network analysis identifies a stable technological core centered on guidance and application control technologies, which connect multiple technology domains, while robotic technologies represent a structurally distinct cluster within the broader PAT co-adoption network. Overall, the findings are consistent with technological integration logics, with differences reflecting levels of integration rather than divergent strategies. The results offer actionable implications for technology providers, advisory services, and policymakers seeking to support PAT adoption.