Sex differences in the use of spatial strategies in humans: An updated systematic review of the last decade

Although sex differences in spatial cognition have been widely studied, the extent to which men and women differ in their use of egocentric and allocentric spatial strategies remains unclear. This systematic review summarizes findings from 21 studies published between 2014 and 2024 that examined sex differences in spatial strategy use throughout development, adulthood, and aging. Studies were identified through searches of Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and PsycINFO, in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Eligible articles examined egocentric and allocentric spatial strategies in humans and reported results by sex. Results demonstrated male advantages in allocentric strategy, as observed in thirteen studies involving children, young adults, and older adults. Men also outperformed women in several navigation outcomes, including target retrieval, route efficiency, and directional accuracy. Evidence for a female advantage in egocentric strategies was limited and inconsistent. Seven studies reported no sex differences, particularly those using small-scale, familiar, or less immersive tasks. This suggests that methodological factors and task demands strongly influence the observed effects. Age also influenced outcomes. Male advantages in allocentric strategies emerged in early childhood. Older women showed relatively preserved egocentric abilities, but greater decline in allocentric tasks. Men showed stronger hippocampal-parietal connectivity supporting allocentric processing, while women exhibited enhanced fronto-temporal connectivity. Hormonal studies highlight the context-dependent effects of testosterone and estrogen. These findings indicate that sex differences in spatial strategies are highly sensitive to task complexity, environmental familiarity, cognitive load, and individual factors. These findings emphasize the necessity of integrative models that consider developmental, neurobiological, and sociocultural contributors.