Regulatory T cells from concept to clinic: The 2025 Nobel Prize and its implications for immune-mediated diseases and cancer

The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, awarded to Shimon Sakaguchi, Mary E. Brunkow, and Fred Ramsdell, recognizes the discovery and molecular definition of regulatory T cells (Tregs) as the cornerstone of peripheral immune tolerance. This recognition honors a transformative journey marked by Sakaguchi's identification of CD4 + CD25 + T cells as a regulatory population (1995), followed by Brunkow and Ramsdell's discovery that mutations in the FOXP3 gene cause both the scurfy mouse phenotype and human IPEX syndrome (2001), and culminating in the demonstration that FOXP3 governs Treg development and function (2003). This achievement crowns a turbulent half-century arc. The suppressor T-cell (Ts) hypothesis of the 1970s proposed an active T-cell brake on immunity but collapsed in the 1980s due to phenotypic ambiguity and reproducibility failures. Following this "dark age," the concept of active suppression was kept alive through functional studies in organ-specific autoimmunity (Parish, Kong, Rose) and transplantation tolerance (Waldmann). However, it was Sakaguchi's discovery of CD25 as a specific marker that finally provided the physical identity of these cells, bridging the gap between functional observation and cellular definition. The subsequent identification of FOXP3 as the lineage-defining transcription factor transformed a disputed concept into a reproducible, engineerable immune module. Today, this molecular precision drives broad clinical translation, ranging from Treg-based therapies in autoimmunity and transplantation to targeted Treg modulation in cancer immunotherapy. This Short Review traces the trajectory—from controversy to molecular definition—and frames a forward path for context-dependent modulation of Tregs in clinical medicine.