Avatars, embodiment, and virtual engagement: A large-scale study with young adults in Germany and the United States

Virtual worlds, spanning both digital games and virtual reality (VR) applications, are increasingly entering the mainstream. While many studies address specific user groups or design aspects, large-scale empirical investigations remain scarce. Prior research suggests that young adults, despite being the primary target demographic, often express skepticism toward immersive technologies (Korn et al., 2024). Using the theory-driven Avatars and Virtual Engagement Scale (AVES), complemented by narrative responses, we examined technology usage, avatar appearance, emotional connection, sensory feedback, and immersive impact among 582 participants aged 18 to 29 from Germany (n = 290) and the United States (n = 292). Although both samples stem from Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) societies, the comparison reveals meaningful within-WEIRD variation. Gaming is highly prevalent, yet immersive VR remains a niche, even among digitally fluent youth. Contrary to expectations, German participants reported significantly higher VR engagement than U.S. participants. Cultural differences were limited to specific items, rather than broad differences in emotional or immersive engagement. Gender-related differences are more pronounced: female participants are more sensitive to emotional expressiveness and avatar-related interpersonal cues, while participants identifying as diverse show the strongest emotional engagement overall. Qualitative findings indicate that these patterns reflect differences in how avatars are used for identity expression and social navigation rather than inherent dispositional differences. Participants identifying as diverse described avatar use as particularly salient for identity exploration, emotional resonance, and social signaling. Qualitative responses reinforce these patterns, highlighting avatars as tools for identity exploration, emotional expression as well as a potential source of discomfort. Together, these insights underscore the importance of gender-related factors and within-WEIRD sociocultural variation in shaping attitudes toward virtual environments. Accordingly, we discuss design implications for more inclusive, customizable, and emotionally responsive virtual experiences.