Moments of disconnection: An adapted still-face experiment with 20-month-old children, comparing digital and non-digital interruptions and exploring the role of parental behavior

This study investigated the influence of technology-related (digital) and non-digital interruptions of interaction on toddler behavior. With a sample of 194 parent-child dyads (mean child age = 20.37 months), an adapted still-face experiment with five phases was conducted, which included both a digital and a non-digital interruption phase. Children’s negative affect, self-regulatory behavior, and physical contact for co-regulation were assessed, alongside parental interaction behaviors such as responsiveness and absorption. Results from a Bayesian multilevel model revealed that in 20-month-old children, a still-face and carry-over effect can be observed, indicating child stress in response to interaction interruptions. Under the digital condition, children displayed self-regulatory behavior more frequently during the interruption and reunion phases compared to the non-digital condition. In contrast, under the non-digital condition, children more frequently displayed negative affect and physical contact for co-regulation during the interruption and reunion phase. Additionally, during the still-face episode, children of consistently responsive parents showed fewer stress-related behaviors across all three indicators: negative affect, self-regulatory behaviors, and physical contact for co-regulation. Finally, strong parental absorption during the interruption phase intensified children’s negative affect. The findings indicate that both digital and non-digital interaction interruptions have an impact on children, although children react to them in different ways. General parental interaction behavior and smartphone specific behavior also influences children’s behavior. Possible implications of these findings for shared parent-child time are discussed.