Comparison of per- and polyfluoroalkyl levels in human matrices, surface and drinking waters in Spain and other countries

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent contaminants with widespread exposure. This review assesses PFAS levels in human and environmental matrices in Spain, focusing on exposure pathways, temporal trends, and treatment efficacy. Biomonitoring confirms persistent internal exposure, with median serum concentrations of PFOS (10460 ng/L) and PFOA (2720 ng/L) in specific regions, influenced by demographic factors, diet, and industrial proximity. Spatial patterns show higher concentrations in Northeast (Catalonia) and Northwest (Galicia) Spain, contrasting with the lowest levels in the Canary Islands. Environmental monitoring in the Ebro, Llobregat, and Júcar basins reveals highly variable concentrations; notably, the Llobregat exhibits elevated mean PFOS (234 ng/L) due to industrial discharges. While long-chain PFAS (PFOS, PFOA) have declined following regulations, highly mobile short-chain compounds (PFBA, PFPeA, PFBS) increasingly dominate rivers, tap water and protected areas like Albufera Natural Park. Regarding remediation, conventional treatment shows limited PFAS removal, whereas reverse osmosis and granular activated carbon yield significant reductions. Spanish PFAS levels remain comparable to those in the United States and Europe, generally falling below current health risk thresholds. However, the evolving profile and persistence of these contaminants underscore the need for harmonised monitoring, improved water treatment, and updated regulations, to safeguard long-term public health.