Dissimilarities in the COVID-19 pandemic reshaping of time use and travel in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan resident behavior from 2019 to 2023

Research has shown that COVID-19 has impacted both short- and long-term aspects of individuals' daily schedules, yet its effects on metropolitan versus nonmetropolitan residents remain underexplored. Leveraging American Time Use Survey data from 2019 to 2023, this study applies diversity indices, sequence analysis, and statistical methods to investigate the pandemic's differential influence on metropolitan and nonmetropolitan daily routines, focusing on time allocation and travel behaviors. The results reveal a significant reduction in out-of-home activities and travel during the pandemic in both metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, followed by a partial recovery after vaccination; however, out-of-home activity levels remained below pre-pandemic levels, with this gap being more pronounced in metropolitan regions. Although the total number of road users declined, traffic congestion did not necessarily ease, as the travel population became less evenly distributed during a day by 2023 in both regions. In metropolitan areas, morning and midday peak hours dispersed, while evening travel remained substantially high. Moreover, seven distinct daily time allocation patterns including travel were identified over the past five years, with their frequency in the population evolving differently between metropolitan and nonmetropolitan residents. Approximately 10 million metropolitan residents transitioned to working from home in 2023. These findings underscore the importance of policies supporting electromobility and decentralized energy production. Continued trend analysis with larger samples is needed, as post-vaccination behaviors have yet to reach stability.