Household fuel stacking and the persistent barriers to clean cooking transition

Understanding household energy dynamics in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) requires close examination of cooking fuel transitions and the persistent practice of fuel stacking. This study aims to investigate the prevalence and determinants of fuel stacking, with particular attention to how socioeconomic, demographic, and perceptual factors shape household cooking fuel choices and influence the transition to clean cooking. A survey of 2,559 households was conducted across ten districts representing Nepal’s three major physiographic regions. Data on cooking fuels, socioeconomic characteristics, and demographic attributes were collected through structured, in-person interviews. The household fuel-use patterns were classified into four categories: Traditional (firewood/solid biomass only), Transitional-Low (two fuels), Transitional-High (three or more fuels), and Clean (no firewood/solid biomass). Descriptive statistics and a Multinomial Logit (MNL) model were used to analyze fuel stacking behavior. The results show that nearly 96% of households rely on firewood as primary or secondary fuel, while 95% use two or more fuel simultaneously, underscoring the widespread persistence of fuel stacking. MNL estimates indicate that larger households are less likely to adopt transitional or clean fuel combinations, whereas higher educational attainment significantly increases the likelihood of belonging to the transitional-high and clean categories. Livestock ownership further reinforces reliance on traditional fuels as these fuels serve both cooking and animal care needs. In addition, the adoption of clean energy sources is constrained by concerns related to convenience, availability, cost, reliability, and compatibility with local cooking practices. Overall, these findings highlight the multifaceted socio-economic and perceptual challenges that impede the transition to clean cooking in LMICs. The study provides evidence-based insights to inform targeted policies and interventions aimed at accelerating clean cooking adoption and advancing progress toward SDG 7.