Advances in experimental models for endocrine-disrupting chemical research across key biological outcomes

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous compounds that interfere with hormonal signalling pathways and can lead to adverse biological effects in humans, wildlife, and ecosystems. This review examines advances in experimental models used to investigate EDC toxicity in humans, with particular emphasis on key health-related endpoints. A structured approach was used to identify relevant literature, focusing on studies that employ in vitro, animal, and human models of EDC toxicity. Well-characterised models, along with recent methodological advances, are discussed as tools to improve the physiological relevance of EDC toxicity studies. By integrating findings across experimental systems, this review provides a coherent framework for understanding how EDC exposure contributes to diverse biological outcomes and highlights current methodological challenges in assessing endocrine disruption.