Advances in electroanalytical techniques for pharmaceuticals and biological samples: Insights from the last decade

Over the past decade, electroanalytical techniques have emerged as powerful and sustainable alternatives to conventional spectroscopic and chromatographic methods for pharmaceutical and biological analysis. Voltammetric, amperometric, and potentiometric approaches offer exceptional sensitivity, selectivity, and precision for the quantitative determination of drugs and biomolecules. Advancements in electrode modification using nanomaterials, conducting polymers, metal nanoparticles, and ionic liquids have significantly enhanced analytical performance by improving electron transfer kinetics, widening potential windows, and minimizing background currents. These innovations have enabled highly selective and biocompatible sensors capable of accurately detecting analytes even in complex biological matrices such as plasma, serum, and urine. A major advantage of electrochemical sensors lies in their compactness, portability, and adaptability for on-site and real-time analysis. Recent developments have introduced flexible and wearable electrochemical devices that facilitate continuous, non-invasive monitoring of biological and environmental targets. Such features make them ideal for point-of-care diagnostics, personalized healthcare, and environmental surveillance. Additionally, the inclusion of surface-active agents and surfactants in electrolytes has amplified voltammetric signals, improved sensitivity, and reduced interference, achieving lower detection limits. Compared to conventional analytical methods, electroanalytical techniques offer several key benefits—rapid analysis, minimal sample preparation, low reagent consumption, and cost-effectiveness—aligning with the principles of Green Analytical Chemistry. This review systematically summarizes the major developments from 2015 to 2025, focusing on electrode material design, analytical optimization, and pharmaceutical and biological applications. It also discusses current challenges, limitations, and future directions, emphasizing the potential of electroanalytical techniques as robust, portable, and sustainable tools for modern pharmaceutical quality control and biomedical diagnostics.