Soundscape preferences at Mount Kilimanjaro reveal differing perceptions of non-material nature's contributions between residents and tourists

Soundscapes allow people to experience nature and associated non-material Nature's Contributions to People (NCP), such as restorative or aesthetic experiences. However, little research has investigated the relationship between specific acoustic characteristics and perceived non-material NCP, and whether these associations differ between social groups. To this end, we assessed the preferences of residents and tourists for soundscapes at Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), representing seven acoustically distinct habitats at both dawn and dusk times of the day. Specifically, we examined how both groups related eleven context-specific non-material NCP to their preferred soundscapes. To identify factors, including seven acoustic indices as measures of acoustic characteristics, associated with NCP selection, we applied generalized linear mixed models. Overall, dawn soundscapes were preferred over dusk, likely due to the dominance and variability of bird vocalizations compared to the louder, insect driven dusk soundscapes. However, preferred soundscapes originated from different habitats; for example, subalpine habitats were favored by tourists but strongly disliked by residents. The acoustic characteristics of preferred soundscapes differed between residents and tourists, and so did the associated non-material NCP, potentially reflecting residents' cultural ties to the region (e.g., cultural heritage) and tourists' demands for natural areas (e.g., therapeutic experiences). Seven non-material NCP were correlated with specific acoustic indices, demonstrating how these indices can serve as valuable tools for identifying both culturally and ecologically important areas for conservation. Importantly, we show that perceptions of NCP, together with soundscape preferences, differ with socio-cultural background, highlighting the importance of integrating diverse preferences into conservation and landscape management approaches.