Visitor perceptions and motivations as drivers of cultural ecosystem services in urban forests: A case study from Helsinki, Finland

• CES follow a gradient from less to more tangible CES. • Drivers of CES differ based on their degree of tangibility. • Perceived ecosystem features and visit motivations predominantly influence CES. • CES assessment should account for CES categories and user characteristics. Cultural Ecosystem Services are gaining increasing attention as motivators for nature conservation and environmental stewardship. However, most assessments focus on tangible, easily measured aspects such as recreation, while more intangible CES—like inspiration, spirituality, or sense of place—and their underlying drivers remain poorly understood. This study examined an array of biophysical and social factors as determinants for CES along a gradient of tangibility. We used a semi-natural ecosystem—urban forest—as a case to study this question. We surveyed urban forest visitors (n = 241) in the city of Helsinki, Finland to assess CES. We compared the performance of ecosystem features, landscape features, and forest visitors’ demographics, nature-orientation, perception on ecosystem features, and visiting motivation in explaining interlinkages between CES of different tangibility. Visitor perceptions of ecosystem features and nature-orientation emerged as key explanatory factors of intangible CES, while visiting motivations were more strongly associated with tangible CES such as physical health and recreation. These findings underscore the need to integrate individual human-nature relationships—including sensitivities, preferences, and habitual engagements—into CES assessment. Practically, we suggest that activating both short-term demands and long-term affinities towards nature may enhance the diverse benefits urban nature can provide.