A comprehensive review on impact of climate change and land use change on groundwater

Groundwater (GW) is central to global water security, yet its resilience is increasingly compromised by accelerating climate and land use change (CLUC). Here, we conduct a systematic review of 575 studies published between 1990 and 2024, following and a Double Diamond Approach (DDA) in Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) framework, to assess CLUC impacts on GW quantity, quality, and system vulnerability. Bibliometric and methodological analyses reveal rapid expansion of the CLUC–GW research domain after 2016, but also persistent geographic inequities, with substantial gaps across data-scarce and high-risk regions. Result also show rising global concern about GW sustainability. However, research is concentrated in China, India, the United States, and Iran, with little work from CLUC-sensitive regions. Current evidence is heavily skewed toward recharge and water balance responses, while hydro-chemical dynamics—including salinization, nutrient enrichment, and pollutant mobilization—remain significantly underrepresented. Methodological innovation, including numerical GW modelling, Geographical Information System (GIS)–Remote Sensing (RS) integration, and hybrid machine-learning approaches, has expanded since 2021, enabling finer-scale scenario projection. However, limited incorporation of socio-economic drivers and poor transparency in Artificial Intelligence (AI) based modelling pose barriers to policy translation. We identify key priorities for future research: strengthening regional representation, integrating human–environment processes, and advancing interpretable, decision-oriented modelling frameworks. These steps are essential for achieving sustainable GW governance under intensifying CLUC pressures.