Mixed methods to assess sacred forest socio-ecosystem dynamics: Case studies from Togo, Benin, Senegal, and Guinea

Africa experienced the highest annual rate of net forest loss globally from 2010 to 2020, primarily driven by human activities. In this context, Sacred Forests (SFs) ecosystems, deeply rooted in local spiritual, cultural, and historical traditions, offer valuable insights into sustainable forest conservation. This study adopts a mixed-methods approach to cross-compare the presence of SFs management practices and assess their effectiveness in mitigating deforestation across four case studies at the core and periphery of the Guinean Forest of West Africa hotspot: Guinea, Senegal (Casamance), Togo, and Benin. Socio-ecological dynamics are analyzed using satellite remote sensing series to monitor land use change 2000 – 2020 and tree canopy cover loss 2000–2023 over time, alongside qualitative fieldwork, including interviews, surveys, and focus groups. Findings show that SFs have demonstrated greater preservation rates against anthropogenic pressures than surrounding forests in the same region. However, a substantial gap persists between customary effectiveness and formal legal recognition. The findings indicate that SFs should be recognized by global policy frameworks, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), as Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) by preserving the specificity of their customary law system. The study further argues for heritage-sensitive policies that bridge state and customary legal systems while recognizing local sustainability paradigms. Through cross-comparative analysis, the paper advances polycentric governance models adapted to the regional diversity and underscores the contextual role of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), embedded in long-standing society–forest relationships, in shaping sustainable conservation strategies in West Africa and beyond.