Coupling agent-based and InVEST® models for spatio-temporal simulation of land-use change effects on ecosystem services

Understanding complex socio-ecological systems requires integrated spatio-temporal assessment. However, socio-ecological modelling approaches rarely represent both space and time. To address this, we present the simulation framework NetVest which couples existing dynamic simulation models with static models by allowing the dynamic model to control the static one. We applied NetVest to coupling dynamic agent-based models, built in NetLogo, with static models from the InVEST® suite, built in Python. We implemented and tested NetVest in a case study of the effects of smallholder-driven land-use change on economic functions and biodiversity over time and space. This case study demonstrated how examining underlying patterns at different time points deepens understanding of key mechanisms. In conclusion, NetVest enables more realistic modelling of socio-ecological systems by integrating spatial and temporal dynamics. This approach supports the development of more balanced land-use strategies that account for biodiversity conservation and land-use change, marking an important step in socio-ecological research.