Recent developments in the use of biomarkers as diagnostic tools in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a narrative review

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a heterogeneous systemic autoimmune disease with a complex a multifactorial pathophysiology. Due to difficulty recognising patients with SLE in an early stage, diagnostic delay is very common, which can result in the accumulation of organ damage. Some immunological signs, such as the presence of autoantibodies, have previously been shown to be present in patients with SLE, even before the onset of the first symptoms. This makes these immunological signs a prime target to improve the diagnostic process. In this article, we review recent studies investigating the use of biomarkers for diagnostics, including autoantibodies, other serum biomarkers, biomarkers in other bodily materials, circulating RNAs, and gene expression profiles. We discuss their place in the pathophysiology of SLE and their potential to improve and expedite the diagnostic process for patients with SLE.