Toward low-cost, high-performance Mn-based cathodes: Challenges, strategies, and perspectives

Manganese-based cathodes have emerged as promising candidates for cost-effective and sustainable secondary batteries, owing to Mn’s natural abundance, low toxicity, and widespread availability. Yet their practical deployment is hindered by structural instabilities rooted in the Jahn–Teller (J–T) activity of Mn 3+ , which triggers lattice distortion, phase transition, and Mn dissolution. This review summarizes the origin of the J–T effect in Mn-based cathodes and synthesizes recent progress in mitigating J–T-induced degradation through three complementary strategies: symmetry design, rational doping, and surface engineering. We critically assess the intrinsic limitations and practical trade-offs of these strategies and delineate forward-looking research directions that may unlock new design paradigms for harnessing Mn-based cathodes. This review provides a mechanistic foundation and design insights to catalyze the development of high-performance, low-cost, and sustainable Mn-based cathodes for non-aqueous batteries.