Lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries for electric mobility applications: A comparative review of performance, economics, industry trends, and future outlook

The global transition toward electric mobility — including electric passenger cars, two/three-wheelers, and low-speed vehicles — has intensified the demand for high-performance energy storage solutions. This review presents a systematic comparative analysis of lead–acid and lithium-ion battery technologies, acknowledging their roles in various segments of electric mobility. Through systematic literature analysis and performance evaluation, this study demonstrates that lithium-ion batteries exhibit superior energy efficiency (85%–98% versus 45%–75%), extended cycle life (1000–6000 versus 300–500 cycles), enhanced cold-weather performance (85% capacity retention at −20 ° C versus 30%), and reduced self-discharge rates (0.01–0.02% versus 0.1% daily). The intercalation-based electrochemical mechanisms of lithium-ion systems provide fundamental advantages over the conversion reactions governing lead–acid chemistry, resulting in superior rate capability and temperature stability. Economic analysis reveals that despite higher initial costs, lithium-ion batteries deliver lower total cost of ownership through extended operational life and reduced maintenance requirements. Industry adoption patterns confirm these technical advantages, with lithium-ion technology capturing over 99% of new electric passenger vehicle deployments. The review examines emerging technologies, including solid-state batteries, advanced electrode materials, and next-generation thermal management systems, identifying future research directions for sustainable electric vehicles. While lithium-ion dominates passenger EVs, two-wheelers, three-wheelers, and micro-mobility in developing economies represent the active competitive battleground where lead–acid persists due to upfront cost constraints despite technical inferiority.