A prospective life cycle assessment of different battery technologies for mobility, including a second stationary application

The versatile nature of batteries makes them an essential component of both stationary and mobility applications, despite their different requirements, throughout the energy transition. Batteries used in electric vehicles (EVs) can further be used in stationary applications, such as for community PV self-consumption. This second application can indeed reduce environmental burdens by extending the usage phase. Here, we analyse different battery technologies, namely, lithium-ion batteries (LIB), sodium-ion batteries (SIB), and solid-state batteries (SSB), and compare their current and potential future environmental impacts using (prospective) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology, following a cradle-to-grave approach depending on the type of application, namely mobility, stationary, or combined. Our results for combined applications indicate climate impacts around 88, 95, and 96 kgCO2-eq/kWh of nominal battery storage capacity for LIB (NMC622), SIB (NaNMMT), and SSB (NMC900), respectively. Furthermore, a potential greenhouse gas emission reduction in the range of 66–72% can be achieved for the same chemistries based on the results of a prospective LCA ( p -LCA). Additionally, a sensitivity analysis is performed to determine the impact of both applications, namely mobility and stationary, on emissions attribution. Finally, other impact categories such as acidification, material resources, and water use are further considered to perform a more inclusive environmental analysis. Thus, we highlight the need to balance critical and abundant raw material incorporation to enhance both the technical performance and long-term environmental sustainability of various battery technologies.