Sodium-ion batteries: A review of modeling, safety, and state estimation techniques

Sodium-ion batteries are attracting growing interest as potential alternatives to lithium-ion batteries, with first commercial products already making their way into the market. Their primary advantages include the low cost and abundance of raw materials used in their production. In addition, the similarity in the operating principles between sodium-ion and lithium-ion batteries enables the repurposing of existing knowledge and technologies. However, most of the current literature remains focused on the electrochemical development of the sodium-ion battery components, while relatively little attention has been paid to the functionalities required from battery management systems tailored to these batteries. Therefore, the aim of this review is to examine the main modeling strategies, the state of charge and state of health estimation techniques, and the safety considerations specific to sodium-ion batteries. In addition, key challenges and differences compared to lithium-ion batteries are highlighted. The ultimate goal is to provide a foundational background to support the development of battery management systems specifically designed for sodium-ion batteries.