Phytochemicals and bioactive properties of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.): A comprehensive review

Mangosteen ( Garcinia mangostana L.) is a polyphenol-rich tropical fruit valued for its traditional medicinal use and diverse phytochemical profile. This review provides one of the most comprehensive discussions to date on the bioactive mechanisms and product applications of mangosteen. It summarises current knowledge on its nutritional composition and major phenolic classes, with emphasis on xanthones and their structural features, distribution in different plant parts, extraction influences and bioavailability characteristics. Evidence from in vitro, in vivo and emerging clinical studies is integrated to outline the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, neuroprotective and cardio-hepatoprotective activities of mangosteen-derived compounds. Industrial applications in food, nutraceutical, cosmetic and pharmaceutical products are highlighted, together with safety data and toxicological findings. Key challenges related to product standardisation, bioavailability and clinical validation are identified to guide future research and support the development of reliable mangosteen-based functional ingredients.