Impact of bile salts, biopolymer coatings, and food matrix on bilosome-mediated delivery of trans-resveratrol

This study compared liposomes, bilosomes, and biopolymer-coated bilosomes for trans-resveratrol ( t -res) delivery, evaluating the effects of bile salts, biopolymer coatings, and oat milk (OM) on digestion behaviour, bioaccessibility, and intestinal absorption. The bioaccessibility of t -res increased by 1.82-fold with liposomes and by 2.14–2.32-fold with bilosomes. Ex vivo absorption studies using murine intestinal tissue confirmed enhanced uptake and tissue accumulation with bilosomes, reaching 16.801 μM compared to 0.400 μM for liposomes. Coating bilosomes with chitosan (CH) and polygalacturonic acid (PGA) improved stability and surface properties but reduced bioaccessibility to 8–40%, depending on biopolymer concentration. The OM influenced both initial and digestion-related properties, enhancing bioaccessibility in uncoated systems while reducing intestinal tissue accumulation of t -res. Overall, these findings indicate that bilosomes outperform liposomes for hydrophobic compound delivery; however, their performance is highly formulation-dependent and strongly influenced by food matrix interactions, underscoring the importance of consumption context in functional food design.