Do Producer organizations Promote Climate-Smart Agriculture? assessing direct and spillover effects in Nigeria

Climate change threatens the livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and beyond, yet the adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) remains low. In this paper, we examine the role of producer organizations (POs) in promoting CSA adoption among their members and non-members through spillover effects. We rely on a three-wave panel dataset of over 1,500 farm households fielded between 2017 and 2019 and estimated the multivariate probit model to capture interdependencies in adopting four key CSA practices: climate-resilient groundnut varieties (CRVs), organic fertilizers, crop rotation, and intercropping. We also examine the association between POs and the adoption intensity of CSA practices, including number of CSA practices used and area under CRVs. Employing the Mundlak–Chamberlain device to address time-invariant unobserved heterogeneity, we find that PO membership is positively associated with the adoption of CSA practices. Beyond the independent use of these CSA practices, we also highlight a positive association between POs and both the adoption intensity and the joint use of these practices which indicates bundling. Importantly, positive spillover effects are observed among non-members, especially for low-cost, easily observable practices such as intercropping and crop rotation, indicating the role of peer learning and informal networks. Conversely, spillovers are less evident for input-intensive practices such as CRVs and organic fertilizers, highlighting the need for targeted support. The results point to two distinct adaptation pathways: a technology-driven strategy reliant on financial and institutional resources, and a diversification-driven strategy based on cost-effective, observable practices. Overall, the study demonstrates the critical role of POs in fostering resilient and sustainable agricultural systems through both direct engagement and community-wide spillovers.