Detection methods, influencing factors, and formation mechanisms of brake particle emissions from automotive brakes: A review

Brake particles are a major source of non-exhaust emissions from vehicles, with growing concerns regarding their environmental and health impacts. This review systematically examines detection and characterization techniques, along with emerging computational methods such as finite element simulation and machine learning. Key influencing factors like brake structure, material composition, and braking conditions are analyzed in terms of their effects on emission characteristics. The formation mechanisms involve coupled mechanical wear and thermochemical processes, highly dependent on interface states. Finally, future development trends and challenges are outlined, emphasizing intelligent research paradigms integrating experiments, simulations, and data-driven approaches, online monitoring and multi-modal sensing technologies, systematic lifecycle environmental risk assessment, and the need for standardized testing protocols and emission limits. This work offers a structured reference for further research and emission-reduction technologies.