A robust two-stage optimisation approach for green hydrogen-based citizen energy communities within active distribution networks considering virtual energy storage

Citizen energy communities (CECs) play an increasingly important role in energy systems, particularly through the integration of green hydrogen with electricity. However, the high investment cost of conventional storage technologies limits flexibility for prosumers. This paper proposes a virtual energy storage (VES) mechanism within a two-stage optimisation framework to coordinate multiple CECs in an electricity–hydrogen active distribution network (ADN). In the first stage, CECs optimise local electricity and hydrogen trading under load and PV uncertainties using a scenario-based approach. In the second stage, the ADN operator applies a classic linear robust optimisation approach to manage upstream electricity and hydrogen price volatility. Results on a modified IEEE 34-bus system show that VES reduces CEC operational costs by up to 23.26%. Moreover, increasing robustness leads to only a 1.04% reduction in ADN profit, demonstrating an effective balance between profitability and risk mitigation while improving voltage stability and reducing peak-time grid dependency. • VES reduces hydrogen-based CEC costs by 23.26%, boosting economic efficiency. • Two-stage optimisation improves the ADN operation and risk management. • Robust model handles price uncertainty in hydrogen and electricity prices. • VES improves grid flexibility, reducing reliance on physical storage.