Modelling framework for wheel–rail contact temperature evolution during braking

Excessive frictional heat generated at the wheel–rail (WR) interface during braking is a primary cause of thermally induced damage and remains a persistent challenge for railway maintenance and safety. This study presents a comprehensive framework for simulating the evolution of WR contact temperature. The approach integrates: (i) a three-dimensional wagon–track interaction model that captures dynamic axle load transfer, (ii) an elastoplastic contact finite element (FE) model with a refined stress reconstruction method, (iii) a novel formulation for the temperature-dependent friction coefficient, and (iv) a pressure-dependent thermal conductance that effectively eliminates numerical singularities. These elements are integrated with a high-efficiency thermal FE model, whose accuracy and physical reliability are validated through comparisons with a transient thermomechanical FE model and field-observed damage patterns. The results reveal a strong positive correlation between creepage and maximum wheel temperature, a highly nonlinear temperature increase during wheel lock-up, and thermal asymmetry during cooling due to enhanced heat conduction on the flange side. The proposed framework can serve as an efficient and extensible tool for wheel thermal response analysis during braking, providing a reliable basis for braking performance evaluation and thermal damage prevention.