Early Iron Age horse exploitation in Thrace (Bulgaria) inferred from dental attrition and vertebral pathology

OBJECTIVE: To assess pathological lesions observed in an Early Iron Age (8th-century BCE) horse to gain insight into equine use and management in the past. MATERIALS: The study is based on a nearly complete adult horse skeleton recovered from a pit at an archaeological site near Chirpan, Thracian Valley, southern Bulgaria. The assemblage is radiocarbon dated to the 8th century BCE and represents one of the few well-documented Early Iron Age equine skeletons from Bulgaria. METHODS: Preserved skeletal elements were examined macroscopically following standard zooarchaeological and palaeopathological protocols. Selected pathological elements were analysed using radiography and computed tomography (CT). Age, sex, and withers height were estimated using osteological and dental criteria. RESULTS: The individual was identified as an adult mare with an estimated withers height of approximately 133 cm. Pathological changes include pronounced dental attrition affecting the upper and lower premolars, degenerative alterations of the thoracic vertebrae and associated ribs, and periosteal proliferation at the proximal phalanges. CONCLUSIONS: The anatomical distribution of the lesions indicates prolonged and repetitive mechanical loading. Dental wear patterns are consistent with bit use, while vertebral and phalangeal changes suggest sustained labour related to draught and load-bearing activities. SIGNIFICANCE: Early Iron Age equine remains are rare across the Balkan Peninsula. This study provides rare palaeopathological evidence for early horse exploitation in southeastern Europe. LIMITATIONS: Poor preservation of the skull limits assessment of cranial trauma. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Further palaeopathological studies of Early Iron Age horses are needed to refine interpretations.